Today emotional intelligence is a popular topic of many discussions among academic scholars and corporate executives. What exactly is emotional intelligence, and what role does it play in business and in education? In this paper, I will attempt to answer these questions by providing definitions and a brief history of emotional intelligence (EQ); by discussing the key components of emotional intelligence. This paper seeks to accomplish four objectives. The first is to provide meaning of emotional intelligence (EI), communication effectiveness, motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables. The second is to develop an integration model showing the relationships among EI, communication effectiveness, motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables. The third is to invest in people through EI activities, communication effectiveness and motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables programs. Lack of recognition of the interconnection among EI, communication effectiveness, motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables in the literature motivated the authors to write this paper.
At present, there is very little empirical literature on EI within the context of the educational administrations, particularly on relationships EI, communication effectiveness, motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables and how manager?s EI is affected on communication effectiveness and? job satisfaction, that have attracted considerable attention in the organizational literature.
In the next section, we review the literature on theories of EI, communication effectiveness, motivation, and job satisfaction, and of the link between them. This review leads to the development of the hypotheses in this study. Finally, we discuss our conclusions.
Emotional intelligence in organization setups has undergone dramatic switches in the last few decades. All over the world, organization environments have seen drastic changes as a result of the late 1990s developments in organizational behavior. The beginning of the 20th century saw the emergence of the notion of emotional intelligence. By the 1990s it became a topic of great interest. The first author on EI as a science was, Daniel Goleman, a psychologist who wrote for the New York Times. He modeled and extended the concept of EI in his book, ?Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ for Character, Health and Lifelong Achievement? which he wrote in 1995. Ever since, the concept of EI took a broader perspective and was reported in Funder standing (2004) series and in articles, the importance of EI became well established.? (This discussion of ?emotional intelligences? is available at http://www.funderstanding.com/eq.cfm.)
Emotional Intelligence transformed progressively from a mere notion into a dominant theory in many research areas within which its effects on human behavior were analyzed. Recently, EI received much interest in effective communication. Results of these studies indicated that emotional intelligence played a pivotal role in human communication. The need to establish the relationship between EI and effective communication was recognized. This relationship was further emphasized by many EI theorists who asserted that managers who are emotionally intelligent communicate well with people (Goleman, 1995; Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004; Weisinger, 1998).
There is a significant gap in the quantity of literature examining the relationship among emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, communication effectiveness, and motivation. One study, the first of its kind, examined the interaction effect of managers? EI and employees? EI on job satisfaction (Sy, Tram, & O?Hara, 2005). Further, empirical support is limited that gives special attention to how managers with high EI offer unique contributions to their organizations (Carmeli, 2003).? More research is needed to further examine the relationships between emotional intelligence and the work environments that affect job satisfaction and performance (Sy et al., 2005). Concerning job satisfaction, existing research has examined the relationship between present-tense emotions and job satisfaction (Niklas & Dormann, 2005), self-esteem and job satisfaction (Alavi & Askaripur, 2003), self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, emotional stability upon job satisfaction and job performance (Judge & Bono, 2001), and finally, the effect of EI upon job satisfaction and performance (Sy, et al.). Concerning organizational commitment, one study was done examining the relationship between EI and occupational stress and organizational commitment (Nikolaou & Tsaousis, 2002). Two research studies, however, were found that examined the three components of EI, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment (Carmeli, 2003; Petrides & Furnham, 2006). But no study has examined the relationship among emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation together.? On the other hand, no study has examined the interaction effect of managers? EI and employees? EI on job satisfaction and communication effectiveness. The combination of these four variable will invariably lead to higher levels of both success and life satisfaction. This comprehensive study will seek to expand our understanding and identify the nature of the relationships among the four factors of emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, motivation, and job satisfaction within the educational administrations. Even though, emotional intelligence is crucial for the sustainment of communication effectiveness and job satisfaction, there have been very limited studies done on this subject, resulting in vital aspects like motivation to go on unnoticed. In order to fill in this gap, this study will be conducted in Iran-based educational administrations.
The problem to be addressed in this study was the lack of communication effectiveness and job satisfaction in educational administrations of Iran. Sharma (2006) reported that attrition rate and absenteeism are major problems in the organizational environment due to ineffective of communication and lack of job satisfaction. Also, In 2000, statistics from the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) 2000 Retention Practices Survey revealed a turnover rate of 21 to 26% in organizations due to lack of communication and job satisfaction. Voluntary turnover increased across the board for 2003 to 2004 from 19 to 20% (NOBSCOT Corporation, 2006). Twenty-one percent of respondents reported poor communication and unsatisfied conditions of job as major reasons for the problem of turnover rate. Smaller organizations experienced a national turnover rate of 17% in the United States (SHRM, 2000). If individuals are not satisfied with their jobs and communications are not effective, problems often arise in effectiveness and satisfaction throughout the organization (Herzberg, 1974).?????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????
Ineffective communication, lack of communication or inadequate communication causing disturbance, employee turnover, disorder, failure to achieve goals, and damage to the image of the organization (Chang, 1993). Another study illustrates that lack of effective communication may lead to; misunderstandings, lack of information, decrease in employees? performance, and decrease in company?s turnover in organizations and on the other hand lead to incompetence, poor teamwork and disrespect (Maxfield et al., 2005). Also lack of communication effectiveness and job satisfaction in organizations led to high stress, monotony, poor fit between employees and the job, inadequate training (Missouri Small Business Development, 2002).??? ?????????????????????????????On the other hand, lack of job satisfaction also lead to lower productivity, higher absenteeism, increased work errors, poor judgment, defensive behavior, hostility, reduction in creativity, and job turnover. Hinshaw, Smeltzer, and Atwood (1987) view low turnover as the product of job satisfaction and commitment, which are in turn influenced by organizational factors such as routinization, instrumental communication, and integration within the organization as well as demographics and the environmental factor of alternate job opportunities. Another example shows lack of job satisfaction in organizations due to absent and leaves the job (Hackett & Guion, 1985, Carsten & Spector, 1987). A 2003 study conducted by Grebner et al. (2003) involving 234 call center agents revealed lower job satisfaction primarily due to lower levels of job control and task complexity. This finding is consistent with earlier research by Victor Vroom (1964), which established that a distinct inverse relationship exists between job satisfaction and attrition. Locke?s (1976) value theory also proves instructive when considering workplace attrition, as this theory differentiated between needs and values and suggested that needs are inborn and exist separate from an individual?s desires. Mobley?s research (1977) also linked job dissatisfaction to attrition, suggesting that employees typically progress through a series of steps prior to quitting: thinking about quitting, considering the cost of quitting, looking for a new job, and eventually quitting.
The question arises, what factors influence job satisfaction and communications effectiveness in organizations? A review of the literature indicated that there are numerous factors such as job performance (Sy et al., 2005; Judge & Bono, 2001), organizational commitment (Carmeli, 2003; Petrides & Furnham, 2006), emotional intelligence (Bar-On, 2005; Schein, 2004; G?lery?z, G?ney, Aydin & Asan, 2008; Carmeli, Yitzhak-Halevy and Weisberg , 2009), communication? (Pettit et al., 1997; Pincus, 1986), and motivation (Anthony and Govindarajan, 1998; Edmondson, 2003).
Also literature review showed that emotional intelligence- one of effective factors- is a considerable factor in today?s volatile environment and additionally studies on this factor very limited and we found? that motivation that it is very vital with regard to emotional intelligence with communication effectiveness and job satisfaction have not seen in previous studies. According to Mathews (2002), numerous professions showed a dire need for some levels of emotional intelligence. The education system is one of those within which, the individuals could reap great advantage from the knowledge of emotional intelligence owing to recurrent human communication that existed among them. Also, the administrative centers of these education administrations sense a need for both the managers and employees to create working associations with others.? This is because, the administration centers have to deal with important people and matters related to key professions. These managers and employees, according to Matthews (2002), partake in a profession in which there exists a high probability that a high level of emotional intelligence is required due to their everyday interaction with their customers, educators, supervisors and co-workers. In line with all reasons above, the objective of this research was to study emotional intelligence on communication effectiveness and job satisfaction; on the other hand, identifying motivation ? existent gap- which may impact the? relationship between emotional intelligence with communication effectiveness and communication effectiveness with job satisfaction. We believe that this research will provide additional insight on this topic.
Both communication effectiveness and job satisfaction researches are considerable researches domain for emotional intelligence. Studies of this domain can be categorized into two fields: the first field regarding factors which influence communication effectiveness and job satisfaction, the second field with regard to communication effectiveness and job satisfaction impact on emotional intelligence.
The majority of communication? effectiveness and job satisfaction researches studies investigate by; Rivers, 2004; Webster?s Dictionary, 2001; Hauser, 1996; Wilson, 1998; Nancy Harper, 1979;Fitzpatrick, 1999; Knapp & Miller, 1994; Vickrey, 1995; Hackman & Johnson, 1991; Luftman, 2004; Asimov, 1987; Hiam, 1999; Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2003. And for job satisfaction major areas explored are such as: Spector, 1997; Arches, 1991; Acker, 1999; Tett & Meyer, 1993; Butler, 1990; Cranny, 1992; Oshagbemi, 1999; Locke, 1976; Lawler, 1981; Miner, 2005.
The review of literature showed much study on the relationship communication effectiveness? and job satisfaction with emotional intelligence like ; Goleman, 1998b; Mayer, 2004; Weisinger, 1998; Deeter-Schmelz & Sojka, 2003; Ikemi & Kubota, 1996; Bar-On, 2005; Goleman, 2001; Schein, 2004; Kotter, 1996; Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000; Bass, 2002. Sy, 2006;? Villard, 2004;? Sporrle & Whelp, 2006; Chiva & Alegre, 2007; Zeidner, Matthews, & Roberts, 2004;? Chan, 2006; Kafetsios & Zampetakis, 2007;? G?lery?z, G?ney, Aydin & Asan, 2008; Carmeli, Yitzhak-Halevy and Weisberg , 2009;? G?lery?z, 2008; Bar-On, 2004; Chiva & Alegre, 2008;?? Kafetsios & Zampetakis, 2008;? Hwang, 2007; O?Hara, 2006.
Research done till date in the field of education administration show a keen interest in knowing all about effective communication and job satisfaction. The resulting knowledge gain on human nature could lead to important elucidations and assumptions about effective skills to improve communications and job satisfaction among managers and employees.? As an example, if a person is able to identify the communication signals of another, this could improve the quality of communication between them. Also, managers and their employees could be taught to identify various communication indicators others express. If the level of emotional intelligence is identified within each employee by the education administration executive, he/he could aid them more profitably.
Various perspectives of human behaviors such as communication and job satisfaction can be illustrated by this study of emotional intelligence. Certain occupational areas are implementing the measures of emotional intelligence measures to foresee employees? performance. Yet, in specific professions such as the teaching profession, specific emotional skills are exceptionally significant to job satisfaction. Other occupations exist where specific skills may be attractive but not imperative. A brain surgeon or mechanical engineers, for example, do not need the same emotional intelligence participation with others than the emotional intelligence the managers and employees in education administrations require to possess so as to surpass in job satisfaction. The formal appraisal of these skills would appear important for professions in which emotional abilities are clearly essential. Thus recognizing the fact that, different jobs do call for different levels of social and emotional involvement and activity, is of dire importance.
Administrators in several jobs sense an increasing need to have recurrent interchanges that is both emotionally positive and supportive with employees and teachers, Even in educational administrations, one generally tends to interact emotionally with others, teachers not only need to assess the reactions of others and attempt to influence other?s emotions and motives but they also need to talk with others face to face and exhibit optimistic behaviors.
Numerous communal establishments, such as corporations and organizations, are commencing explorations with EI, even though it is a fairly innovative concept and it continues to advance in the research arena. It is supposed that, by recognizing the manager and employee?s? level of emotional intelligence, a difference in corporations and organizations could be achieved companies attempt to develop the quality of the executives and co workers? lives which is said to affect their output level, which, in turn, amplifies profits (Brophy,1996). However, it should be stressed here that, emotional intelligence should be recognized as early as in the educational setting when these prospective social contributors are not yet key administrators or workers in the educational management. After completing the research illustrated above, several apparent gaps were found to exist in the area of the proposed research topic: relationship between emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations of Iran.? As well, there are gaps in the literature due to a lack of investigation into a potential relationship between emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations of Iran.
The main gaps of this study including:
1. There is not any study related to relationship between emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation together. In current research, the researcher combines four main variables together for examine them.
2. Observing little studies on relationship between emotional intelligence and communication, but no study has examined relationship between emotional intelligence and effectiveness of communication. According to the process improvement literature, there are a small number of previous research papers studied the area of emotional intelligence with communication skills, styles, interpersonal, verbal and non verbal, and competence concept. Research that is published helps to address the gaps of not having information on emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness.
3. Another gap is that there has been no study on communication effectiveness as mediator in relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction.
4. Another gap in this study refers to motivation as moderator variable. There has been no study on motivation as moderator variable on relationship between emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness.
5. Another gap in this study refers to motivation as moderator variable. There has been no study on motivation as moderator variable on relationship between communication effectiveness and job satisfaction.
6. Observing little studies on relationship between demographic factors, emotional intelligence, and job satisfaction together. The gap in the current research is that there are limited studies due to the emotional intelligence and job satisfaction with usage control variable.
Thus, there are obvious gaps in the literature for an emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations of Iran. The current study was developed with the intention of filling that research gaps. Due to these gaps, in educational administrations research, the study was absolutely necessary and certainly timely. For these reasons, the researcher believes that there is benefit in conducting this research.
It is worthy to note motivation in current study is very vital in existing literature and have been studied with regard to various factors such as organization performance, leadership, and arguments imply the influence this factor on the relationship between emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness; on the other hand, relationship between communication effectiveness and job satisfaction. As a result, the researcher will fill the mentioned gap with focus on motivation as moderating factor on the link between emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness and job satisfaction.
After observing several apparent gaps were found to exist in the area of the proposed research topic: relationship among emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations of Iran.? As well, there are contributions in the current research.
This study hopes to make the following contributions to knowledge:
1. The main contribution in current study is motivation that this researcher for filling these gaps, used motivation factor as a moderator variable in the relationship between emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness; and also, relationship between communication effectiveness and job satisfaction. In light of this contribution, it is assumed that if one has a high degree of emotional intelligence, one through motivation will have a higher degree of job satisfaction.
2. The second main contribution in current study is communication effectiveness that this researcher used communication effectiveness factor as a mediator variable in the relationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction. In light of this contribution, it is assumed that if one has a high degree of emotional intelligence, one through communication will have a higher degree of job satisfaction.
3. Another contribution in current study is that the issues of conceptual and construct validity make this study important. In conducting this study, it is hoped that the findings will add to the accumulation of empirical evidence on the determination of the discriminant validity of emotional intelligence. With claims that emotional intelligence is important in communication and job satisfaction, a study employing communication, job satisfaction, and motivation variables will be useful in providing evidence for the predictive validity of the construct.
4. Performing this research in educational domain. This contribution in current study is that needs to be addressed is that there has been no study on the relationship between emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations domain. There are studies in different domains such as: political, social, economic, and etc.? This research studied in educational domain. A review of the existing literature for the four associated areas of study revealed that there was no previous research into domain of education.
5. Since this study was done in Iran, the data collected will contribute to the intercultural component of the emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness data set. Results from this study may also contribute to the enrichment of the intercultural communication literature.
6. Researchers of emotional intelligence frequently conclude that managers with high emotional intelligence are also good communicators with employees. This study hopes to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between employees and managers? communication effectiveness and emotional intelligence.
7. The current study can promote the implementation of district job satisfaction factor that could potentially enhance or improve the level of emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness in managers and employees.
8. The last contribution in this study is that there has been no study on the relationship between demographic factors and emotional intelligence in educational administrations. Existence of control variables (gender, age, education level, job position, and work experience) in current study makes this study important.
Thus, the fundamental principle of this investigate study was to explore emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation using a group of managers and employees from educational administrations of Iran; to explore correlations between emotional intelligence, using the Bar-On EQ-i, communication effectiveness, using communicator Competence Questionnaire (CCQ), job satisfaction using Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), and motivation using Motivation Sources Inventory (MSI)in educational environment of Iran. It occurred that emotional intelligence; communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation were relatively weakly associated with one another utilizing this sample group. Further studies should be conducted that will assist to re-evaluate the way managers and employees interact with in the educational environment. Further studies should focus on finding better ways for managers and employees to manage or communicate their emotions. A way managers and employees explore more about their emotions is by motivation that could motivate them to appreciate the significance of effective communication.The significance and need for this study greatly benefits those occupied in the educational environments. It may also help educate managers and employees about the necessity of raising their own level of awareness of emotional intelligence and explore various ways they deal with coworkers, teachers, parents, and others. The result of this study could possibly extend to the development of emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations. In other words, the study could promote the implementation of district motivation variable that could potentially enhance or improve the level of emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, and job satisfaction in managers and employees. In which case, the need for survey emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction and motivation to gain effectiveness and satisfaction in educational administrations might be greater. The following question was considered.
In this comprehensive study, we will study the effect emotional intelligence on communication effectiveness, the effects of emotional intelligence on job satisfaction, the influence of communication effectiveness on job satisfaction, and finally, effect of motivation on relationships between emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness and also communication effectiveness with job satisfaction.? Hopefully, with this study we will be able to accurately understand the concept of emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation, along with a better understanding of their interaction. It would really help managers and employees of organizations to sustain communication effectiveness and job satisfaction in today?s organizational environment if there is good understanding of these factors and their relationships. We will examine emotional intelligence by looking at from its five components, which are intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability, stress management, and general mood. With the findings from this study, managers and employees will be able to identify the components that are vital to them in sustaining communication effectiveness and job satisfaction, which also gives managers and employees the knowledge and understanding they need in dealing with emotional intelligence. The findings from this study will be able to assist managers and employees of educational administrations to decide on the factor that affects their motivation more. It is also hoped that managers and employees will have better insight and knowledge on how to support their motivation in their organizations, which have not been studied before in the earlier literatures. Organizations will be able to better their effectiveness with this study because as it has been mentioned earlier, high emotional intelligence leads to enhanced communication effectiveness and job satisfaction of the organization.
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The study of emotional intelligence evolved from works by such theorists as Gardner (1983) and Williams and Sternberg (1988), who proposed broader approaches to understanding intelligence. Salovey and Mayer (1990) coined the term ?emotional intelligence? and included Gardner?s intrapersonal and interpersonal components in the construct. Goleman (1998) popularized emotional intelligence in the business realm by describing its importance as an ingredient for successful business careers and as a crucial component for effective group performance.
These theorists and many others defined and explained the concept of emotional intelligence. In the course of this research, I found at least a dozen definitions of emotional intelligence (EQ). Here I will include the four most popular ones. Emotional intelligence (EQ) can be defined as:
???the ability to monitor one?s own and others? feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one?s thinking and action? (Mayer & Salovey, 1993).
???the intelligent use of emotions: you intentionally make your emotions work for you by using them to help guide your behavior and thinking in ways that enhance your results? (Weisinger, 1998).
???the ability to recognize and respond to the emotions and feelings of others, as well as the skill to help others manage their emotions? (Schmidt, 1997).
???the ability to: 1) be aware of, to understand, and to express oneself; 2) be aware of, to understand, and to relate to others; 3) deal with strong emotions and control one?s impulses; and 4) adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature (Reuven Bar-On, 1988).
Thus, the definition of emotional intelligence as the range of abilities, talents and skills that are non-cognitive but can affect a person?s ability to manage the environmental demands and pressure successfully by Bar-on was found to be suitable for this study.
Many experimental studies are being conducted in an effort to prove and check the reliability and validity of emotional intelligence ever since its importance has been felt and spread. Eventually, significant amount of research arose to promote educational success. The need to study a larger range of possible predicators relating to educational achievements and its associations with various other factors, were increasingly being sensed by researchers such (McCallum & Pipeer, 2000).One of these factors researchers were looking into was the ego defense mechanisms and the effect of social and emotional ability. Even though studies on the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic achievement have not been fully investigated, the credibility of this construct to subsist in numerous researches has been noted. An examination on the association between the subsets of emotional intelligence namely; emotional awareness, emotional regulation, and emotional knowledge and behavioral processes related to adaptive performance illuminates how emotional intelligence fits within the design of the total personality (Pellitteri, 2002).??? In a bivariate correlation analysis that was performed by Pellitteri that resulted in contrary outcomes than what were assumed. In this study, emotional knowledge was associated with both adaptive and maladaptive defense styles and with general intelligence. The study comprised 107 subjects of ages ranging from 18 to 52 years, out of which; 22 were men and 85, women. They were selected from three major ethnic groups of 37 Hispanics, 29 Africa American and 26 Caucasian that comprised 35,27 and 24 percent of the total population respectively studying at two universities in the north eastern urban area. All of the participants have registered in the college as postgraduates, or graduate students. The investigators ensured that the population had an adequate reading level to complete the required tasks of the study and used the Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) as a means of measure. This model of emotional intelligence has four components. It consisted of 12 task-oriented, group administrated, subtests represent ting the four main components of the 1997 model (Pellitteri, 2002). Factor analysis of the MEIS revealed that the subtests of two of the components loaded onto one factor (Pellitteri, 2002). Because of times constraints on the participants, only seven of the 12 subtests were used. There was one total score of EQ and the three emotional intelligence components (emotional perception, emotional regulation, and emotional knowledge). The internal reliability of item to total correlations was established by retaining items that were correlated with their corresponding defense at a significant level of .001 or greater (Pellitteri, 2002). The validity of the ego strength questionnaire was established through a four-factor solution that was correlated in expected directions with the measure of ego strength, with Loginger?s measure of ego development, with each other, and with the patient-on patient group of samples. As a result, it was seem that the adaptive defense styles were correlated with overall emotional intelligence but not with the emotional perception and regulation components (Pellitteri, 2002).Thus, the research illustrated the intensity with which emotional intelligence could affect a person?s life.
The following review on literature focuses on the instrument of Bar-On EQ-I which this study aims to use. Among the research done till date on this instrument, one focused on the relationship between emotional intelligence and age. The population sample of 3,891 for this study consisted people from ages 20 to 50 who were divided into five specific age groups representing groups of 20 years and under, 20 to 29, 30 to 39, 40 to 49 and 50 and above age groups though overall, only a small significance was revealed among those groups of various ages, the groups with older people particularly in their forties and fifties, scored higher in their overall EQ score than the younger subjects. As a result, it was concluded that as people grow older, their emotional intelligence also increases (Bar-On, 1997; Bar-On, 2002, pp.81-84).
Bar-On and Parker (2000b) conducted a study that laid emphasis on the role of gender and its influence on emotional intelligence. The population comprised 9,712 children and youth who were divided into groups of 4,635 males and 4.625 males and 4,547 females with ages ranging from 7 to 18 years. A gender by age group was compared using a series of two-way ANOVA with the Bar-On EQ-I youth Version (Bar-On & Parker, 2000b). The results demonstrated that emotional intelligence was significantly higher among the oldest group of subjects. Bar-On also conducted a study of emotional intelligence in 1996 and how it was connected to occupational satisfaction, commitment, and competence. In this study, a very modest relationship between emotional intelligence scores and job satisfaction among a population of 314 participants comprising nurses, teachers, college students, and sales people, was concluded (Bar-On, 1997). As a result, about 20% of the variance in work satisfaction and the following subscales score: self-regard, social responsibility, and reality (Bar-On, 1997) was noted. Additionally, emotional intelligence predicted a measure (self- report) of the perceived competence on the job (Bar-On, 1997). Thus, people who showed a higher level of self-regard, social responsibility, and reality scored higher on the emotional intelligence subscales. The study thus demonstrated that people possessing emotional intelligence constructs enjoyed their employment status to a higher regard than those who scores were lower in these aspects.? In addition, it was concluded that separate components showed that successful students scored higher in some specific areas of adaptability, interpersonal, and stress management.
Researchers like Darwin, Thorndike, Wechsler, Sifneo, and Applebaum had influenced development of the emotional-social intelligence (Bar-On, 2005). The central constituents in the emotional-social intelligence meaning and concepts were founded on the works of these researchers. Recognizing the various abilities in EI, Bar-On divided them into five sets which he considers as:
(a)? Ability to distinguish, recognize and communicate emotions and feelings
(b) Ability to recognize how others sense and relate with them
(c) Ability to deal with and manage emotions
(d) Ability to transform, adjust and unravel problems of an individual and interpersonal nature; and
(e) Ability to create positive influences and be self-motivated (Bar-On, 2005, p.3).
Thus, emotional-social intelligence, then, is a cross-section of interconnected emotional and social capabilities, skills and catalyst that establishes how successfully we comprehend and articulate ourselves, recognize others and communicate with them while managing our daily demands (Bar-On,2005.p.3). Consequently, the theoretical framework for the Bar-On model and its measurement called the EQ-I, are based on these sets of abilities. Bar-On (2000) asserts that the EQ-i was framed to gauge a person?s emotional and social intelligence and not personality traits or cognitive capacity. Yet, research has shown that the EQ-I has a somewhat reasonable relationship with other personality trait measures (e.g. Conte, 2005). Other research stated that, Bar- On?s model of emotional intelligence focused on non-cognitive personality traits (Newsome et al., 2000). Meanwhile, Bar On reiterated that his construct had sufficient empirical evidence to prove its validity as he had based the concept of his model on the results of various researches conducted around the world during a period of 17 years (Bar-On, 2000). Finally, he developed his theory of Mixed (trait) theory by identifying five variables
??intrapersonal: The intrapersonal score is a value which represents the Manager?s ability to know how he acts or responds to emotions. It includes the measurements for the subscales of self-awareness, assertiveness, independence, and self-regard.
??interpersonal: The interpersonal score is a value which represents the Manager?s ability to identify or know how his emotions affect, or is perceived by, others. It includes the measurements for the subscales of empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationships.
??adaptability: The adaptability score provides insight into the Manager?s ability to be flexible and realistic. It includes the measurements for the subscales of reality testing, flexibility, and problem solving.
??stress management: As expected, this score reflects the Manager?s ability to deal with, and adapt to, stress. It includes the measurements for the subscales of stress tolerance and impulse control.
??general mood: General mood evaluates the Manager?s attitude and perceptions of life and people. It includes the measurement for the subscales of optimism and happiness.
According to Campbell (1989) communication effectiveness is deliberate behavior aimed at augmenting the result of an interpersonal meeting. Similarly, the expression ?communication effectiveness? is often replaced by, ?effective communication? (Gudykunst, 1993, 1995, 2005a). In other words, communication becomes valuable when the people involved in the communication can augment understandings and decrease misunderstandings.
Fisher reiterated that effective communication is an important factor in any work place, relationship as well as in everyday life but difficult to attain (Fisher, 1999). Since communication is the means by which any manage can increase his knowledge and skills of communicating effectively, it can be used to unite the manager to his workers and decision making to induce teamwork in organizations (Thamin, 1992). Each concept possesses certain limitations to effective communication but according to the literature review, six factors that could help improve communication effectiveness were: effective listening, feedback, understanding, influencing, oral and written, and clarifying. All these aspects would be discussed in detail henceforth.
??effective listening: An effective listener is one who pays attention to what the speaker saying without interruptions noting all the details while listening for key words of interest to enquire about later and retains his verdict until this speaker has presented all of his or her ideas (Greenberg, 1999).
??feedback: Feedback takes place when the receiver of a communication sends a message back to the sender. The best method to receive the message properly is through a feedback (Greenberg, 1999).
??understanding: The extent to which people make sense of what they see and hear to participate completely in a communication and respond shrewdly, according to the conditions is based on understanding.
??influencing:the meaning of influence is being able to move things ahead, without pushing, forcing or telling others what to do.
??oral and written: Communication consists of oral communication, body language, listening, inflection, and written communication and thus, multi faceted.
??clarifying: The extent to which a person uses cautious and penetrating questioning methods to effectively interpret the words and actions of the other person in order to understand his/her meaning is called clarifying. ?
Job satisfaction is a recurrently researched subject in work and organizational literature and has been investigated by several disciplines such as psychology, sociology, economics and management sciences. An employee?s affective reaction to his job in terms of how much it satisfies his desired outcome is called job satisfaction. He compares it with the actual outcome. (Cranny et al., 1992). Overall, job satisfaction is actually how much a person likes his/her job (Spector, 1999). It may also relate to a person?s emotional attachment to one?s job ?? viewed either in its entirety (global satisfaction) or with regard to particular aspects (facet satisfaction; e.g. the employees? view of the quality of supervision? (Tett & Meyer, 1993, p. 261).
Motivation has been defined as the inner condition of man that swells in vigor to become active. It is also defined as something that encourages a person toward certain goals or that which influences a person?s learning strategies and cognitive process (Ormrod, 1995). It is very essential to comprehend and maintain the motivation in a job, since it will influence employees and managers in deciding the time and energy spent in work action (Fisher & Cole, 1993). At an individual level, occupational motivation is defined as the intrinsic enthusiasm that promotes the continuous engagement in one?s occupation or the ?exceptional moments? (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997, p. 29) in one?s career. Central to this definition is the notion that motivation involves voluntary actions that are goal directed (Halbeslem & Bowler, 2007).
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Both communication effectiveness and job satisfaction researches are considerable researches domain for emotional intelligence. Studies of this domain can be categorized into two fields: the first field regarding factors which influence communication effectiveness and job satisfaction, the second field with regard to communication effectiveness and job satisfaction impact on emotional intelligence.??????????????????? ???????????????????????????The majority of communication? effectiveness and job satisfaction researches studies investigate by; Rivers, 2004; Webster?s Dictionary, 2001; Hauser, 1996; Wilson, 1998; Nancy Harper, 1979;Fitzpatrick, 1999; Knapp & Miller, 1994; Vickrey, 1995; Hackman & Johnson, 1991; Luftman, 2004; Asimov, 1987; Hiam, 1999; Schermerhorn, Hunt & Osborn, 2003. And for job satisfaction major areas explored are such as: Spector, 1997; Arches, 1991; Acker, 1999; Tett & Meyer, 1993; Butler, 1990; Cranny, 1992; Miner, 2005.
The review of literature showed much study on the relationship communication effectiveness? and job satisfaction with emotional intelligence like ; Bar-On, 2005; Burleson & Caplan, 1998; Schein, 2004; Kotter, 1996; Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000; Bass, 2002. Sy, 2006; Villard, 2004;? Sporrle & Whelp, 2006; Chiva & Alegre, 2007; Zeidner, Matthews, & Roberts, 2004;? Chan, 2006; Kafetsios & Zampetakis, 2007;? G?lery?z, G?ney, Aydin & Asan, 2008; Carmeli, Yitzhak-Halevy and Weisberg , 2009;? G?lery?z, 2008; Bar-On, 2004.? Research done till date in the field of education administration show a keen interest in knowing all about effective communication and job satisfaction. The resulting knowledge gain on human nature could lead to important elucidations and assumptions about effective skills to improve communications and job satisfaction among managers and employees.? As an example, if a person is able to identify the communication signals of another, this could improve the quality of communication between them. Also, managers and their employees could be taught to identify various communication indicators others express. If the level of emotional intelligence is identified within each employee by the education administration executive, he/he could aid them more profitably. Various perspectives of human behaviors such as communication and job satisfaction can be illustrated by this study of emotional intelligence. Certain occupational areas are implementing the measures of emotional intelligence measures to foresee employees? performance. Yet, in specific professions such as the teaching profession, specific emotional skills are exceptionally significant to job satisfaction. Other occupations exist where specific skills may be attractive but not imperative. A brain surgeon or mechanical engineers, for example, do not need the same emotional intelligence participation with others than the emotional intelligence the managers and employees in education administrations require to possess so as to surpass in job satisfaction. The formal appraisal of these skills would appear important for professions in which emotional abilities are clearly essential. Thus recognizing the fact that, different jobs do call for different levels of social and emotional involvement and activity, is of dire importance.
Administrators in several jobs sense an increasing need to have recurrent interchanges that is both emotionally positive and supportive with employees and teachers, Even in educational administrations, one generally tends to interact emotionally with others, teachers not only need to assess the reactions of others and attempt to influence other?s emotions and motives but they also need to talk with others face to face and exhibit optimistic behaviors. Numerous communal establishments, such as corporations and organizations, are commencing explorations with EI, even though it is a fairly innovative concept and it continues to advance in the research arena. It is supposed that, by recognizing the manager and employee?s? level of emotional intelligence, a difference in corporations and organizations could be achieved companies attempt to develop the quality of the executives and co workers? lives which is said to affect their output level, which, in turn, amplifies profits (Brophy,1996). However, it should be stressed here that, emotional intelligence should be recognized as early as in the educational setting when these prospective social contributors are not yet key administrators or workers in the educational management. After completing the research illustrated above, several apparent gaps were found to exist in the area of the proposed research topic: relationship between emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations of Iran.? As well, there are gaps in the literature due to a lack of investigation into a potential relationship between emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations of Iran.
Based upon the studies and researches, it can be concluded that communication effectiveness and job satisfaction are affected by many factors. To name a few factors, job performance, organizational commitment, emotional intelligence, motivation and leadership can influence communication effectiveness and job satisfaction. For this study, we have focused on emotional intelligence due to some reasons that we have mentioned previously. By reviewing much literature, it was found that emotional intelligence brought about a positive effect on communication effectiveness and job satisfaction. In relation to communication effectiveness and job satisfaction, many researchers have categorized intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, adaptability, and general mood as components of emotional intelligence. We are going to examine all the mentioned components against other constructs. Additionally, we have found a gap after examining and reviewing the literature on this subject. In order to fill in the gap, we have included motivation construct in relation to emotional intelligence with communication effectiveness and job satisfaction. Also, we studied relationship between demographic variables (i.e., age, gender, job position, work experience, educational level) and emotional intelligence. We will discuss the arguments and support for the construct in more detail in next section. Figure 1shows the research model.
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Theorists who advocate emotional intelligence reiterated that EI leads to enhanced effectiveness in communication (Goleman, 1998; Mayer et al. 2004; Weisinger, 1998).To demonstrate their point; one instance was pointed out wherein salesman required a high degree of emotional intelligence to be successful. They either consciously or unconsciously relied upon some dimensions of emotional intelligence to accurately understand and respond appropriately to customers? verbal and nonverbal signs (Deeter-Schmelz and Sojka, 2003). In another instance, it was indicated that workers sensed a better and nicer manager when he was trained in emotional intelligence (Ikemi and Kubota, 1996. p.116). There has been clear evidence of some similar essential factors that bond emotional intelligence with communication effectiveness in the field of EI theories. One of these similarities is the construct of cognitive complexity which has been referred to, in Hale?s research, as being effective in promoting communication effectiveness. Also, Saine believed cognitive complexity could lead to the transfer of information while Watson & Behnke realized its effectiveness in group problem solving activities (Hale, 1980, Saine, 1976, Watson & Behnke, 1994).
Bar-On (2005) ?to be emotionally and socially intelligent is to effectively understand and express oneself, to understand and relate well with others, and to successfully cope with daily demands, challenges, and pressures.? (p. 3). Goleman (2001) the social awareness of emotional intelligence has directly relationship with people and groups precisely and communication such as ?the empathic individual can read emotional currents, picking up on nonverbal cues such as tone or facial expression? (p. 35-36), while the relationship management focus on inducing attractive responses in others tune their own responses to move relations in the best way ?? effective in give-and-take of emotional information ?skills at handling difficult people?? (p. 37). Mayer et al. (2004) ?the high EI individual, most centrally, can better perceive emotions, use them in thought, understand their meanings, and manage emotions better than others ? tends to be more open and agreeable ?? (p. 210). As shown, these theories focus on the significance of understanding and relating with others which has near connection with case of communication where adaptation and proper use of knowledge and skills are essential when interacting with other person.
Recent research in the area of emotion intelligence has also led to a link to communication. Andersen & Guerrero (1998) suggest that emotions intelligence are inherently communicative and provide six principles that illustrate how communication is necessary to the process of emotional experience. These six principles include: (a) Emotions evolve as communicative actions, (b) emotional expression is shaped through socialization processes, (c) the primary elicitor of most emotion is interpersonal communication, (d) schemata affect how and when emotions are communicated, (e) an inherent feature of emotional experience is emotional expression, and (f) emotion generates other emotions and interaction chains.
The above literature demonstrates that emotions and communication are often associated with interpersonal interactions. Anderson and Guerrero believe that the future welfare of the human race, may depend somewhat on a better understanding of emotions and communication and thus it is essential to expose the future managers to the concept of emotional intelligence and communication so as to ensure the prosperity of mankind (Anderson & Guerrero, 1998,p.89). The focus of this study will continue with emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness in the educational administrations. In summary, a communication view of emotional intelligence on the interaction and relationship components of the process. The view holds that emotional intelligence is outcomes of the communicative process. It follows that to improve manager effectiveness requires a significant emphasis on communication effectiveness since according to this view; it is through communication effectiveness that emotional intelligence occur. Figure 2.1 show his relationship:
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As a result of this, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H1: Emotional intelligence is positively associated with communication effectiveness.
H1a: Intrapersonal (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with communication effectiveness.
H1b: Interpersonal (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with communication effectiveness.
H1c: Adaptability (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with communication effectiveness.
H1d: Stress management (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with communication effectiveness.
H1e: General mood (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with communication effectiveness.
Several studies have been conducted on the relationship between workers EI and their satisfaction at their workplace especially during the 21st century. Some of the significant? studies that related these two constructs to job performance were by Bellamy and Bellamy (2003), Sy et al, (2006), Wong and Law (2002) and Villard (2004) . Another research on this relationship is by Patra who proved that those employees with EI find their place of work satisfying and this influenced their satisfaction and overall productivity that led to efficient management and organization development (Patra, 2004).
To conclude, most studies provided significant evidence that higher emotional intelligence levels were related to more flexible managers as they are able to understand the reasons behind stress and thereby plan ahead to avoid the resultant unconstructive consequences of stress (Cooper & Sawaf, 1997). Furthermore, Shimazu, Shimazu, & Odahara all feel that these managers will probably control emotions in others too. Their ability is very useful in group settings where employees with high EI can use their skills to promote constructive interactions that help increase their own self-esteem, as well as the self-esteem of the group, and add positively to the experience of job satisfaction overall (Shimazu, Shimazu, & Odahara, 2004).? On the other hand, those with lower emotional intelligence levels are probably less conscious of their emotions and quite incapable of managing their emotions in complicated circumstances. These workers ultimately augment their level of stress and thereby reduce their level of job satisfaction. As a result of this, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H2: Emotional intelligence is positively associated with job satisfaction.
H2a: Intrapersonal (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with job satisfaction.
H2b: Interpersonal (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with job satisfaction.
H2c: Adaptability (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with job satisfaction.
H2d: Stress management (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with job satisfaction.
H2e: General mood (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with job satisfaction.
Many research like those of Goleman and Lanser have showed a relationship betweenemotional intelligence and motivation (Goleman, 1998b, Lanser, 2000). They reiterated that through the positive and negative aspects of working life we can comprehend motivation which is an essential factor of emotional intelligence. Also, Dijk and Freedman proved the relationship between emotional intelligence and motivation in a study that concluded that those who require extrinsic support for motivation are always are helpless without the consent or reward system of other (Dijk and Freedman, 2007, p.17). Some of? the studies? that dealt with emotional intelligence and have examined the role? that emotional intelligence play in? motivation, self regulation and variety of achievement behaviors were by Frijda 1994 and Zurbriggen & Sturman 2002, Ellis & Ashbrook, 1989; Fatt & Howe, 2003; Glaser-Zaikuda, FuB, Laukenmann, Metz & Randler, 2005; Goleman, 1995; Mayer and Salovey 1993; Pekrun, Goetz and Titz & Perry, 2002. Most of these studies showed a relationship between emotional intelligence and motivation. For example, a study by Wong and Law showed that workers EI influenced their job satisfaction and performance (Wong and Law, 2002).
Thus, the literature review concluded that emotionally intelligent employees are efficient enough to distinguish emotions, control them and employ them to improve performance in others as compared to those employees that possessed lower emotional intelligence capabilities. In addition, employees who possessed EI were found to be able to look at their responsibilities in a constructive manner so as to enhance motivation. As a result of this, the following hypothesis is proposed:
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H3: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness.
H3a: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between intrapersonal (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) and communication effectiveness.
H3b: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between interpersonal (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) and communication effectiveness.
H3c: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between adaptability (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) and communication effectiveness.
H3d: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between stress management (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) and communication effectiveness.
H3e: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between general mood (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) and communication effectiveness.
Many public and private organizations have started to study their communication systems in order to appraise their effects on the effectiveness of their companies. This initiative commenced with studies related to communication effectiveness and its relationship to job satisfaction (Weigel, 1994). Among the earliest analysts who conducted significant research into the connection between communication satisfaction and job satisfaction was Herzberg in 1960s (Downs and Hazen, 1977). From then on, many other related studies such as those conducted by? Faicione, McCroskey, & Daly, 1977; Pettit et al., 1977; Pincus, 1986; Richmond & McCroskey,1976; Wheeless and Wheeless, & Howard, 1984 have been recorded. In the 1970s, more substantial results into this area of research were produced. One such study revealed that the employment of effective communication by the employees and managers in an organization as well as their job satisfactions are vital features that contribute to the success of any organization whether public or private (Druker, 1988).??????????????????? ??Kim believed that when the relevant individuals in an organization participate in strategic planning process with the influence of effective communications, job satisfaction is amplified (Kim, 2002). Other researchers have mentioned over 500 studies where there were significant associations found among communication, productivity and job satisfaction within? working environments? (Downs, Clampitt and Pfieffer ,1988). Thus, it can be concluded that, the two variables of communication and job satisfaction are directly related to a company?s efficiency and achievements (Young, Worchel, & Woehr, 1998). As a result of this, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H4: Communication effectiveness is positively associated with job satisfaction.
In this day and age, motivation and communication have been found to possess a significant relationship in the majority of establishments. Literature revealed that, though motivation has played an important role in the enhancement of communication effectiveness the relationship between the two construct were rarely studied. Some of these studies, have concluded those who were inherently motivated had the habit of looking at an organization?s communication environment as being more honest than externally motivated ones (Krivonos ,1975).Thus, motivation, in a later study was recognized as one of the ways to for attain communication effectiveness (Locke, 1976). To reiterate this point, another study concluded that without an adequate measure of motivation, communication probably would not take place effectively (Scott, 2008).
Literature review revealed that primary study into the complex nature of satisfaction and motivation and provided knowledge into many general predicaments. For one, the relationship that exists between job satisfaction and motivation has often misinterpreted. Though in past literature, job satisfaction and motivation were not the same, they were shown to be related and somewhat depended upon one another in recent literature. One researcher linked basic psychological issues to organizational and industrial settings when dealing with motivation and job satisfaction (Wofford, 1971) .It was also assumed that these two constructs?? were both simple and comp
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